Binary search

What it does

Given a sorted array $a_0 \le a_1 \le \dots \le a_{n-1}$ and a value $x$, binary search finds the first index $i$ with $a_i \ge x$ (or reports $n$ if there is none) by repeatedly discarding half of the remaining candidates.

The invariant

Keep a half-open window $[lo, hi)$ and hold on to two facts:

• every index before $lo$ has $a_i < x$;
• every index from $hi$ onward has $a_i \ge x$.

lo = 0
hi = n
while lo < hi:
    mid = lo + (hi - lo) / 2
    if a[mid] < x:
        lo = mid + 1      # a[0..mid] are all < x
    else:
        hi = mid          # a[mid..] are all >= x
return lo                 # first index with a[i] >= x

When the loop ends, $lo = hi$, so the two facts meet: everything before $lo$ is $< x$ and everything from $lo$ on is $\ge x$. That is the answer.

Why it is fast

Each step shrinks $hi - lo$ by at least half, so the loop runs $O(\log n)$ times instead of $O(n)$.

Common traps

• Overflow. Write lo + (hi - lo) / 2 instead of (lo + hi) / 2.
• Infinite loops. lo = mid (without the + 1) can stall when hi = lo + 1. Whenever mid is ruled out, move the boundary past it.
• Mixing conventions. Pick half-open $[lo, hi)$ or closed $[lo, hi]$ and stay with it, because the loop condition and both updates change together.